Introduction
In its historical development, passive resistance in South Africa has been closely associated with the late Mahatma Gandhi and his philosophy. As early as 1906, he led the Indian community in South Africa in acts of passive protest. In later years there were further passive resistance campaigns by the Indian, Black and progressive-thinking white communities in South Africa. Gandhi believed in the effectiveness of what he called the ‘soul force' in passive resistance, maintaining that the suffering experienced by the resisters inspired a change of heart in the rulers.
It was Gandhi's genius that transformed what had been an individual ethic into a tool for social and political action. He did this in the course of his twenty-year struggle against racialism in South Africa.
In 1906 an exceptionally humiliating law was enacted to enforce the registration of Indians in the Transvaal. Gandhi found he had reached a dead-end: the colonial government in Pretoria, supported by the dominant European community, was adamant; the Government of India was indifferent and the imperial government in London was reluctant to intervene. Something more than reasoning and persuasion was required.
It was at this crucial juncture that he stumbled upon a new technique of fighting social and political injustice. He called it satyagraha . Gandhi was in no doubt about one thing: the campaign method was to be conducted without hatred and without violence. During the next eight years he used this method with a measure of success, until 1914, when he reached an agreement with the South African government and left for India. It was as the author and sole practitioner of satyagraha that, in 1919-20, he entered the Indian political scene, which he was to dominate for the next three decades.
Gandhi's comment on the term satyagraha was as follows: ‘ I coined the word ”satyagraha” in South Africa in order to give a name to the power with which the Indians there fought for a full 8 years (1906 - 1914). I spoke of “satyagraha”' in order to force a wedge between this power and the movement which was referred to in Great Britain and South Africa as “passive resistance”.'
Definition and Three Principles
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• Satya - truth; implying openness, honesty, and fairness.
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• Ahimsa - refusal to inflict injury upon others.
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• Tapasya - willingness for self-sacrifice.
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The Passive Resistance Campaign
Satyagraha and the Black Act
When Gandhi first arrived in South Africa in 1893, the growing anti-Indian attitude had spread to Natal. Natal was given self-government and politicians were under increasing pressure to pass legislation that would contain ‘the merchant menace'. Two bills were passed in the following two years that severely restricted the freedom of Indians. The Immigration Law Amendment Bill stated that all Indians had to return to India at the end of a five-year indenture period, or had to be re-indentured for a further two years. If they refused, an annual tax of £3 had to be paid. This bill came into law in 1895. The Franchise Amendment Bill was also passed in 1894. It was designed to limit the franchise to Indians who already had the vote. Although there were only 300 of them in comparison with 10 000 white voters, this bill caused outrage among Indian leaders. They decided to contest the measure by every available means.
Mohandas Gandhi played a prominent role in the campaign, as he was a talented letter-writer and meticulous planner. He was assigned the task of compiling all petitions, arranging meetings with politicians and addressing letters to newspapers. He also campaigned in India and made an initially successful appeal to the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Ripon. The formation of the Natal Indian Congress on 22 August 1894 marked the birth of the first permanent political organisation to maintain and protect the rights of Indians in South Africa.
In August 1906 the Asiatic Law Amendment Ordinance became law in the Transvaal. Any Indian who did not register by a certain date would no longer be allowed to stay in the Transvaal.
This law stated that every Indian man, woman or child older than 8 years must register with a government official called the registrar of Asiatics. This registrar would also take the fingerprints of the people he registered and issue them with registration certificates, which they had to show to any policeman who asked to see them. An Indian who could not produce a certificate could be fined and sent to prison.
The Transvaal Indian Congress asked Gandhi to come to the Transvaal. They urgently needed his help in interpreting and opposing this law.
Gandhi moved to the Transvaal and set up an office in Johannesburg. He studied the Asiatic Law Amendment Ordinance and wasted no time in translating them into Indian languages and publishing them in the Indian Opinion . He referred especially to the insulting law demanding that Indians give prints of their ten fingers, as if they were criminals.
Gandhi also contacted the leaders of the Chinese community to discuss the new laws. Mr Leung Quinn was a leading figure in the Chinese community. He promised Gandhi that he would urge the Chinese people to join in the fight against what became known as ‘The Black Act'. The Chinese had originally been brought to South Africa to work on the Transvaal mines, therefore the Black Act applied to them, too.
Within a few days, mass meetings were organised. The thousands of people who attended vowed not to submit to the Black Act, no matter the consequences and government threats. This vow was later known as the Satyagraha Oath, and it marked the beginning of the eight-year-long Satyagraha Passive Resistance Campaign. Many prominent leaders of the day threw their weight behind the campaign. They included Abdul Gani, the Chairman of the Transvaal British Indian Association, Yusuf Ismail Mian (The Chairman of the Transvaal Indian Association, later called the Transvaal Indian Congress), and Ahmad Muhammad Cachalia, a wealthy merchant.
The Transvaal government realised that it was not going to be easy to impose these harsh laws. General Smuts, the Prime Minister, sent a representative, William Hosken, to say that the Government would not change the laws. But, if the people obeyed these laws, General Smuts would be prepared to make minor changes. Hosken delivered his message at a mass meeting. After his address, Ahmad Cachalia, a devout Muslim and a wealthy man, stood up and addressed the meeting;
`Every Indian knows what the Black Act is and what it implies. I have listened to Mr Hosken attentively, and so have you. His speech has only confirmed me in my resolution. We know how powerful the Transvaal Government is. But it cannot do anything more than enact such a law. It will cast us into prison, confiscate our property, deport us or hang us.' Mr. Cachalia gave everyone a chance to absorb his words before he continued, `All this we will bear cheerfully, but we cannot simply put up with this law. I swear in the name of God that I will be hanged but I will not submit to this law, and I hope that everyone present will do likewise.'
Cachalia was not afraid to go to jail, and he inspired those who shared his views. With a sense of spiritual commitment, many of the Indians and Chinese entered on the Passive Resistance Campaign in 1907.
The Campaign was fought on many levels. Pickets were organised outside the government's Asiatic Stairs offices, and people were discouraged from registering. In temples, mosques and churches, people were asked not to submit to the Black Act.
The Campaign was initially known as the Passive Resistance Campaign, but many people felt this name was inappropriate as the campaign was anything but passive. They were actively resisting oppression, even if they were doing so in a non-violent way. Gandhi coined the name Satyagraha , which means 'the force that comes from truth, love and non-violence'. This was the name given to the campaign from 1907 onwards.
By the closing date of registration in terms of the Black Act, out of the total Indian population of over 13 000 only 511 Indians had registered. The community regarded them as traitors. Some of those who had registered felt bad about what they had done and tore up their permits. A Chinese man who had registered felt so ashamed at letting down his community that he committed suicide.
The Smuts Government had expected resistance to their unjust Asiatic Laws, but they had not expected the fervour of Gandhi's campaign. The Transvaal government tried everything in its power to stop it. They imprisoned Gandhi and hundreds of other people. They also deported Satyagrahis to India, including people who had been born in South Africa.
Eventually, Smuts was forced to negotiate. In 1908, while Gandhi and many of the other campaign leaders were in prison, Smuts sent Albert Cartwright, the editor of the Johannesburg newspaper The Transvaal Leader, to speak to them. He delivered a letter proposing that Indians register voluntarily and participate in deciding on the details that should be entered upon registration. If Indians agreed to register voluntarily, Smuts promised to repeal the Black Act.
Passive Resisters were released from prison following the temporary settlement of January 1908: This is a picture of the Indian leaders after their release.
Gandhi discusses the terms of the settlement with fellow-prisoners Leung Quinn (from the Chinese Association) and Thambi Naidoo (from the Transvaal British Indian Association). They made some amendments and signed the proposal.
On 30 January 1908 Gandhi was escorted from prison to Pretoria to meet Smuts. They agree that Indians would register voluntarily, that negotiations would be validated and that the Asiatic Registration Act will be repealed. Smuts also said that Gandhi was free to go home and promised to release all the other campaigners the next day. Gandhi was given a first-class train ticket to Johannesburg.
On his arrival in Johannesburg, Gandhi went to see Yusuf Mian, the Chairman of the Transvaal Indian Association, later called the Transvaal Indian Congress. Gandhi and Mian called a midnight meeting at the Hamidia Mosque to discuss Smuts' terms. Despite the late notice of the meeting, nearly a thousand people attended. Gandhi explained the terms of the agreement to the people and encouraged them to register voluntarily. Many people were not happy about registering, as they had made a vow and did not want to break it.
Mir Alam was among the group who refused to register. He felt that Gandhi had betrayed the cause of the campaign by accepting the proposal. On 10 February, while Gandhi was on his way to register, he was attacked and injured by Alam and some of his friends. Recuperating at the home of a dear friend, Rev Doke, he stuck by his decision to trust Smuts and registered from his bed.
Smuts did not repeal the Black Act as he had promised. His dishonesty angered the Indian community and Gandhi sent a letter to Parliament, reminding Smuts on the terms of their agreement. In the letter, Gandhi warned that if Smuts did not repeal the Act as promised. the Indians would burn their registration certificates.
Gandhi gave Smuts until 16 August 1908 to respond. On this day, the Indian community held a meeting on the grounds of the Hamidia Mosque in Johannesburg. A three-legged pot stood in the corner of the grounds, waiting to be used to burn the registration certificates, if necessary. A telegram arrived from Smuts, saying that the government could not concede to the request of the community.
The certificates were burnt and the Satyagraha Campaign started again. Mir Alam, who had assaulted Gandhi, publicly apologised for the attack and threw his original registration certificate into the fire while the crowd cheered him. The newspapers gave vivid descriptions of the bonfire, in which more than 2 000 certificates were burnt.
The Satyagraha Campaign and the Transvaal Immigration Restriction Act
In 1907 the Government passed another law which placed restrictions on Indians entering the Transvaal from any of the other provinces. Indians from all over the country were affected by this law.
A Satyagrahi called Sorabji informed the Government that he intended to break this law in protest. He entered the Transvaal without a permit, was arrested and brought to court on 8 July 1908. The case was dismissed because Sorabji had not been properly summoned to court. However, Sorabji was ordered to appear in court again on 10 July and warned to leave the Transvaal. He refused to do so and on 20 July was sentenced to a month's imprisonment with hard labour.
The following month, Sheth Daud Mahomed, the president of the Natal Indian Congress, followed Sorabji's brave act of defiance. Together with a group of Satyagrahis, he, too, entered the Transvaal without a certificate. They were arrested on 18 August 1908.
These incidents encouraged more and more Satyagrahis' to defy the discriminatory laws. A delegation was sent to Britain to seek the help of the British government in resolving the situation. Nothing came of this, and the Satyagraha movement continued with its campaign.
The Campaign starts to lose momentum
The Satyagrahis had pledged to fight until death or victory. Both they and the South African government were determined to stick to their resolutions: the government was determined to get Indian people to obey their laws and Indians were determined to disobey these unjust laws until they were repealed.
In June 1909 Gandhi left for London. The Indians in the Transvaal were unhappy about the settlement he had made with Smuts, and when he returned to South Africa in December 1909, Gandhi found that his fellow members of the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) were openly opposing him.
T he Campaign started to lose momentum, although Smuts' government was receiving a bad press in Britain and pressure was mounting for it to make changes. The Satyagrahis were beginning to tire after the long struggle and disillusionment was setting in. People wondered how long the fight would last. The families of Satyagrahis were supported by cash donations, which were running out.
Many of these families, including Gandhi's own family, lived in the Phoenix Settlement in Natal, a camp that started in 1904. The Phoenix Settlement was based on ideals that were unique for those times: a free community that was multiracial, multi-cultural and class-free. Eventually, the settlement grew to about sixty individuals.
Tolstoy Farm
Gandhi spoke to his friend Herman Kallenbach about the possibility of building a place like the Phoenix Settlement in the Transvaal. Kallenbach was a German architect who supported the Indians' struggle. In 1910 he bought a farm of about 1 100 acres and gave it to the Satyagrahis to use. Kallenbach helped to build houses on the farm to accommodate 60 men and 10 women. He also built a house for himself, a workshop for carpentry and shoemaking, and a building which was used as a school.
Gandhi went to stay on the farm with his family. He named the settlement Tolstoy Farm, after the great Russian writer, Leo Tolstoy, who had inspired his philosophy of non-violence and simple living. Work was distributed evenly amongst the members of the community, and a very important rule was that men and women should be treated equally.
It was here that Gandhi changed his way of dressing from a suit and tie to a working man's trousers and shirt, similar to a prisoner's clothes.
The school on the farm taught history, geography, writing, arithmetic, prayers, religious songs, and storytelling. Stories were told to develop close contact between the children and to build a spirit of friendship.
From Tolstoy Farm, the Satyagrahis continued to defy the restrictive laws on a small scale: they sold fruit and vegetables without licences to do so, and many crossed the border from Natal into the Transvaal without permits.
In 1912, Gokhale, an outstanding Indian political leader, visited South Africa. He met Gandhi and toured the country with him, talking to the Indian people and listening to their stories about their struggles. Gokhale also met some South African government officials who told Gokhale that they were prepared to abolish the Black Act and the £3 Tax and to make other concessions for Indians.
‘As soon as the Government makes these changes, you must come back to India,' Gokhale said to Gandhi. ‘We have problems in India and we need your help there.'
Gandhi laughed at this. He told Gokhale how untrustworthy the Smuts government was and said that that political change might take a while.
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