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SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY TIMELINES
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Africa: Colonialism, Arts, Protest & Independence
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| 1884 |
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Otto von Bismarck chairs the Berlin Conference to stem the scramble for Africa. Only Morocco, Ethiopia, and Liberia are recognized as independent entities.
Partition of West Africa and East Africa |
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| 1896 |
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Ethiopia, under Emperor Menelik II, defeats invading Italian army in the Battle of Adwa.
Lumière brothers' demonstration of projected moving photographic images in Alexandria.
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| 1897 |
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British punitive expedition to the Kingdom of Benin sacks and burns down the city, loots its artworks and artifacts, and exiles the Oba of Benin to Calabar |
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| 1898 |
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Enoch Sontonga composes Nkosi Sikelel'i Africa, which later becomes the pan-African national anthem in South Africa during apartheid and, thereafter, part of the new South African national anthem. 
British conquest of Sudan
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| 1900 |
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Henry Sylvester Williams convenes the first Pan-African Conference
French circus group projects the Lumière brothers' L 'Arroseur arrosé in Dakar. |
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| 1902 |
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End of the Anglo-Boer Wars in South Africa.
Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum, is founded and offers art lessons |
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| 1903 |
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Ama Onabolu establishes himself as a modern portrait painter in Lagos and is the first modern Nigerian artist.
Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Cairo, is established.
Herero revolt in Namibia against German colonial rule is brutally suppressed by German colonial troops; thousands are massacred. |
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| 1904 |
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France consolidates its West African colonies into French West Africa. |
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| 1908 |
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Prince Yousef Kamal founds the School of Fine Arts; Cairo.
France establishes French Equatorial Africa.
Tunisia becomes a French protectorate.
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| 1910 |
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Union of South Africa is formed |
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| 1912 |
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African National Congress founded in South Africa as a political organization to defend the rights of disenfranchised blacks. |
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| 1913 |
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Muhammad bin Abubakar publishes the epic poem Utendi wa Liiyongo Fumo (Epic of Liyongo Fumo) of the southeastern African oral tradition. |
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| 1914 |
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Modern Nigeria is created when Lord Frederick Lugard amalgamates the Northern and Southern British protectorates to form Nigeria.
Establishes Lagos as the central capital of the colony. |
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| 1919 |
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W.E.B. Dubois organizes the First Pan-African Congress, in Paris. |
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| 1920 |
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Nigerian modern art pioneer Ama Onabolu completes art studies at St. John's Wood School of Art; London.
Spain is defeated by Abd el Krim's forces in Morocco.
Shooting of striking coal miners by colonial troops in Enugu, eastern Nigeria. |
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| 1921 |
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The Society of Fine Arts is founded in Egypt.
Second Pan-African Congress is held, in London, Brussels, and Paris; it has a large contingent from Africa. |
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| 1922 |
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Egypt becomes constitutional monarchy.
Mohamed Bayoumi's short film The Civil Servant is the first to be made by an Egyptian filmmaker. |
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| 1923 |
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The Devonshire Memorandum declares the interests of the natives in Uganda paramount.
Third Pan-African Congress is held, in Lisbon.
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| 1924 |
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Achimota College is founded in Ghana, with G.A. Stevens as its first art master.
The film The Girl of Carthage is directed by Chikly in Tunisia.
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| 1925 |
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Thomas Mofolo publishes his third novel, the critically acclaimed Shaka the Zulu, written in Sotho
Radio broadcasting begins in Algeria |
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| 1927 |
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Kenneth Murray arrives in Nigeria at Aina Onabolu's instigation to teach art at King's College, Lagos. His art curriculum is later introduced into other major regional colleges First Egyptian feature film, Leila, is directed by Istephane Rosti
Fourth Pan-African Congress is held, in New York |
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| 1929 |
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Exhibition of watercolors by Albert Lubaki, from the Belgian Congo, is held at the Palais des Beaux-Arts, Brussels, and travels to three other European venues
Aba Women's Riot, a major revolt in eastern Nigeria against colonialism |
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| 1930 |
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Tshekisho Plaatje's novel Mhudi is published in South Africa |
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| 1931 |
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Ghanaian nationalist politician and publisher J.B. Danquah establishes Times of West Africa |
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| 1934 |
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Aimè Césaire and Leopold Sédar Senghor found the Paris-based newspaper L'Etudiant Noir |
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| 1935 |
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Italy invades Ethiopia
MISR Studio, Africa's first film studio, opens in Egypt
Radio broadcasting begins in Tunisia
Nnamdi Azikiwe founds The West African Pilot, an African nationalist newspaper in Accra and, later, Lagos |
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| 1936 |
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Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie flees from invading Italian troops to Geneva, and petitions, unsuccessfully, to win the support of the League of Nations to reestablish Ethiopia's sovereignty |
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| 1937 |
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Nnamdi Azikiwe publishes Renascent Africa, a book dedicated to the idea of African political and cultural independence
Nnamdi Azikiwe and Herbert Macaulay found the National Convention of Nigeria and Cameroon in Lagos, the first nationalist political party, with a broad national base and membership
Kenneth Murray exhibits the work of five of his students, including Ben Enwonwu, at the Zwemmer Gallery, London
The Fine Arts School is founded at Makerere College, Uganda, under the direction of Margaret Trowell |
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| 1938 |
July |
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Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya's nationalist leader, publishes Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of the Gikuyus, with an introduction by Bronislaw Malinowski |
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| 1940 |
April |
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Nelson Mandela, future leader of liberated South Africa, is expelled from Fort Hare University for being involved in a student strike
African colonial conscripts join the war against Nazi Germany |
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| 1944 |
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Nelson Mandela founds African National Congress Youth League with Oliver Tambo
Italian troops are expelled from Ethiopia and Emperor Selassie returns
Winston Churchill and Theodore Roosevelt issue the Atlantic Charter, which recognizes the right of all peoples to decide what form of government they wish to have
The Group of Contemporary Art is formed around Hussein Youssef Amin in Egypt
Dramatist and satirist Hubert Ogunde stages his first play, The Garden of Eden |
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| 1945 |
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End of World War II. African soldiers return from Europe, North Africa, and Asia
Arab League founded in Cairo issues Arab Charter, a document of pan-Arab cultural, religious, linguistic, and political solidarity |
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| 1945 |
July-August |
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General strike of government employees over wage demands, Nigeria Hubert Ogunde founds the first professional theater group in Nigeria, the Ogunde Concert Party, and writes Strike and Hunger, set against the backdrop of the general strike of workers against the exploitative wages paid by the colonial administration in Nigeria. The theme song, Kobo Ojumo (A Penny a Day), known as 'the song of the people," becomes a big hit Algerian nationalist demonstrations lead to riots, resulting in numerous deaths
United Nation is formed in San Francisco |
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| 1945 |
October 15-21 |
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Fifth Pan-African Congress, held in Manchester, England, is convened by George Padmore (Trinidad); H. Mekonnen (Ethiopia); Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast); Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya); and Peter Abrahams (South Africa). The result is the unanimous demand for an independent Africa |
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| 1946 |
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Trade Unions legalized in the Belgian Congo.
Alliance formed between the African National Congress and the South African Indian Congress to oppose white rule
Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertés Démocratiques is founded in Algeria by Messali Hadj Rassemblement Démocratique Africain (RDA) is founded by Houphouet-Boigny (Ivory Coast) with Modibo Keita (Mali) and others
Forced labor is abolished in all French colonies. French citizenship is offered to all inhabitants of overseas territories
Leopold Sédar Senghor's Chants d'Qmbre is published by Editions Seuil, Paris |
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| 1946 |
March |
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New constitution in Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) makes it the first British African colony with a black majority in the Legislative Council |
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| 1947 |
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T. R. Mekonnen founds the Pan-A fricanist Journal in London
New constitution allows for a black majority in the Legislative Council, Nigeria
Nationalist revolt in Madagascar against the French
United Gold Coast Convention convoked by J.B. Danquah
Kwame Nkrumah publishes Towards Colonial Freedom, a manual for the struggle to end colonialism
East African High Commission is formed
Alioune Diop establishes Presence Africaine in Paris, a publishing house and a journal promoting African culture and literature, and a major organ of the Negritude movement in the postwar period
Ben Enwonwu becomes the first Nigerian to hold the post of Federal Art Advisor
South African artist Gerard Sekoto leaves South Africa and goes into exile in France |
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| 1948 |
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Afrikaner National Party, under the leadership of Daniel F. Malan, comes to power in South Africa, and the all-white Parliament begins to legislate apartheid policies
University College lbadan is founded in Nigeria
The highly acclaimed village of New Gourna, Egypt, is built by Egyptian modernist architect Hassan Fathy, Fathy's philosophy of combining modernist technology with low-cost traditional material is seen as a successful bridge between European and Maghrebian building traditions
Seydou Keita opens his photographic studio in Bamako
Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC) is formed.
Bloc Democratique Senegalais is founded by Leopold Sédar Senghor.
Alan Paton publishes Cry, The Beloved Country about life under apartheid in South Africa General strike in Zanzibar against colonial occupation
Camden Arts Centre, London, exhibits Nigerian art
Polly Street Art Centre is established in Johannesburg.
Leopold Sédar Senghor edits the first anthology of Negritude poetry, Anthologie de Ia Nouvelle Poésie Negre et Malgache, with an introduction by Jean-Paul Sartre
Ernest Mancoba participates in the HBST COBRA" exhibition in Copenhagen. |
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| 1948 |
February |
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Twenty-nine are killed in anti-British riots in Accra, Gold Coast. World War II veterans protest colonial government, and institute a boycott of European goods. These events spur on the fight for independence |
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| 1949 |
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Convention of People's Party (CPP) is founded in the Gold Coast by kwame Nkrumah.
Gold Coast Film School established in Accra
Makerere becomes a university college
Mixed-race marriages declared illegal in South Africa |
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| 1950 |
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South African National Party passes the following apartheid laws: Immorality Act, Population Registration Act, Suppression of Communism Act, Group Areas Act.
Sierra Leone People's Party formed by Milton Margai
Aimé Césaire publishes Discourse on Colonialism
KoIa Ogunmola, Nigerian actor, playwright, ahd mime, stages his Yoruba-language play lfe Owo (Love of Money) |
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| 1951 |
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Pressure mounts in Egypt for England to leave occupied Canal Zone
Libya becomes an independent kingdom
Gordon College is affiliated with Khartoum
Technical Institute and becomes the School of Fine and Applied Arts and the center of the Khartoum School artists' movement
Poto-Poto school is founded in Brazzaville, Congo, by Pierre Lads
Drum magazine is founded in South Africa
Shaaban Roberts writing in Swahili emerges as East Africa's leading poet and essayist with his best-known work, Kusadikika (To be Believed) |
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| 1952 |
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All non-whites are forced to carry passes in South Africa. Political organizations launch a massive resistance campaign
Kwame Nkrumah becomes prime minister of the Gold Coast
Egyptian revolution overthrows King Farouk Amos Tutuola's Palm Wine Drinkard is published by Faber and Faber Frantz Fanon's Black Skin, White Mask is published |
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| 1952 |
October 20 |
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State of emergency declared by the British in Kenya after Mau Mau (The Land and Freedom Army) rebellion. Kenyatta is arrested by Kenya's colonial government. Mau Mau guerrilla activity continues until 1959 |
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| 1952 |
November 8-9 |
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South African riots suppressed by security forces Mandela and other colleagues arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act |
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| 1953 |
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Grand Kalle (Joseph Kabasele), known as the father of Congo music, founds Orchestre African Jazz in Léopoldville
E.T. Mensah and his band undertake their historic tour of Nigeria. The band receives enthusiastic welcome in Lagos
Mamlou Toure's short film Mouramani is released in Guinea
Algeria and other French colonies oppose colonial rule; FLN issues a manifesto and an armed struggle against French rule begins
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is formed
South African government institutes new laws against massive resistance as well as the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, Public Safety Act, Criminal Law Amendment Act, and the Bantu Education Act
Egypt becomes a republic, with General Muhammad Neguib as president
Julius Nyerere elected President of Tanganyika African Association
France deposes the Sultan of Morocco
The Nigerian College of Arts, Science, and Technology, Zaria, is established
Camara Laye publishes L'Enfant Noire (The African Child) |
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| 1953 |
June 15 |
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Over 100 Mau Mau fighters killed by British forces in Aberdere Forest, Kenya |
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| 1953 |
October 20 |
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Jomo Kenyatta and five others convicted of organizing the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya. Kenyatta is sentenced to seven years in prison |
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| 1954 |
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Television introduced in Morocco
The first public broadcast of Western Nigerian Television
Cyprian Ekwensi's People of the City is published
Colonel Nasser seizes power in Egypt; British troops are removed from Egypt and Nasser is elected Egypt's first president
Algerian War of Independence begins, led by the Front Liberation Nationale (FLN)
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) is formed, with Nyerere as president Nkrumah's CPP wins general election in Gold Coast; Britain promises independence Frank McEwen helps establish the National Gallery of Rhodesia (later the National Gallery of Zimbabwe). Thomas Mukarobgwa, employed as a gatekeeper, would later become a pioneering Zimbabwean artist
Akwapim 6 is formed in Accra by six Ghanaian artists
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| 1955 |
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Sudan gains independence from Britain
Television introduced in western Nigeria
Odu: A Journal of Yoruba and Related Studies is founded at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, by Saburi Biobaku and UlIi Beier |
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| 1955 |
June 26 |
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| 1956 |
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Various representatives of African nationalist parties attend the Bandung Conference in Indonesia
State of emergency is declared throughout Algeria; Moroccan Army of Liberation attacks French posts in West Algeria
UPC banned in Cameroon
Cameroonian author Mongo Beti publishes critical novel The Poor Christ of Bomba
Ousmane Sembene publishes his first novel, Le Docker Noir (The Black Docker)
King Mohammed of Morocco is restored to throne by the French
Sudan becomes an independent republic
Oil is discovered in southern Nigeria
Morocco and Tunisia become independent
President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, leading to international crisis. British and French invasion of Egypt fails to make Nasser a hero in the Arab and African independence struggle
Dedan Kimanthi, leader of the Mau Mau (Land and Freedom Army), is hanged in prison
African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) and the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) are founded
Treason trial against opponents of apartheid begins in South Africa, and lasts until 1961 |
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| 1956 |
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Congres des Artists et Ecrivains Noirs is organized by Alioune Diop and Aime Césaire, and held in Paris at the Sorbonne. Delegates include Frantz Fanon, Leopold Sedar Senghor, Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, Ben Enwonwu, and Cheik Anta Diop
Television introduced in Algeria |
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| 1957 |
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Afro-Asian Solidarity Conference is held in Cairo
Tunisia becomes a republic
Union des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noir founded by Sékou Toure in Guinea
Black Orpheus, a journal for African arts and literature, is founded by UIIi Beier in Ibadan, Nigeria
In an effort to affirm cultural continuity with the past, Ghanaian poet Kofi Awoonor begins to translate into English traditional African oral art forms, which he would draw from and recast in his own poetry and fiction
Paulin Soumanou Vieryra's and Mamadou Sarr's film Afrique sur Seine (Africa on the Seine), on African students' life in Paris, is the first film made by a black African in Europe |
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| 1957 |
March 6 |
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Gold Coast becomes independent Ghana, the first independent black state in Africa, under Prime Minister Kwame Nkrumah. E.T. Mensah's song Ghana Freedom is special song of the night |
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| 1958 |
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Sekou Toure in a historical confrontation with General de Gaulle in Conakry demands outright independence for Guinea
Egypt and Syria formally merge to form United Arab Republic with Nasser as president All-African People's Conference is convened by Kwame Nkrumah in Accra
South Africa officially gains independence from Great Britain
Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart is published
Egyptian director Youssef Chahine's film Cairo Station is released
French military raids Tunisia
General de Gaulle advocates a federation called the French Community with internal autonomy for French overseas territories; announces independence of French Africa at Brazzaville
Zaria Art Society (later known as the "Zaria Rebels") is inaugurated at the Nigerian College of Arts, Science, and Technology, Zaria, by Demas Nwoko, Bruce Onobrakpeya, S. Irene Wangboje, Yusuf Grub, William Olaesebikan, Simon Okeke, and Uche Okeke. Okeke founds the Cultural Center, Kafanchan (later renamed Asele Institute). The Institute is moved to Nimo at the outbreak of the Civil War |
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| 1958 |
October 2 |
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Guinea becomes independent with Sekou Toure; all other French African territories remain within the French Community |
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| 1959 |
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Fifty are killed, three hundred wounded in anti-colonial demonstrations in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa), Belgian Congo, organized by the Alliance des Ba-Kongo (ABAKO) Saniquelle meeting is held between Presidents Nkrumah, Tubman, and Toure to plan the union of free African states and the establishment of the Monrovia Group, a move toward founding an African Community
Riots in the Belgian Congo
United Nations condemns apartheid
Senegal and Western Sudan (now Mali) demand independence and brings about the end of the French Community
Second Congres des Artists et Ecrivains Noirs, held in Rome
Lionel Rogosin's Come Back Africa, a film examining the pass laws for blacks in South Africa, is released |
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| 1960 |
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At the Brussels Round Table Conference in January Belgium agrees to the independence of the Belgian Congo.
Seventeen African countries gain independence (Nigeria, Senegal, Mali, Belgian Congo, French Congo, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Cameroon, Somalia, Dahomey (Benin), Mauritania, Madagascar, Niger, Chad, Togo, Gabon, and the Central African Republic.
The United Nations declares 1960 as the Year of Africa
Pan-African Congress organizes demonstration in Sharpeville; South African police kill sixty-seven National Anti-Pass Law Campaign demonstrators in what becomes known as the Sharpeville Massacre.
The PAC and the ANC are banned
South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) is formed, with Sam Nujoma as president
Army mutiny in newly independent Congo; Katanga province secedes as an independent nation from former Belgian Congo, under Moishe Tshombe; UN troops deployed in Katanga to end secession from newly independent Congo. Unrest continues as another revolt against Congo's central government in Kasai province breaks out
Ulli Beier organizes the independence exhibition in Lagos, where the works of key members of the Zaria Society are shown
E.C. Arinze and his Music Band records Freedom Highlife to commemorate Nigerian independence
Grand Kalle (Joseph Kabasele) composes Independence Cha Cha, the popular theme song of Congolese independence
Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka writes A Dance of the Forests and forms the theater group 1960 Masks (later renamed Orisun Players) to perform it
D.T. Niane publishes Soundjata ou l'Epoque Mandingue, a French translation of the Soundjata epic
Chief Albert Luthuli, former African National Congress President, is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
Harold Macmillan delivers "Winds of Change" speech in Cape Town and commences his "Winds of Change" tour around British Colonial Africa in anticipation of independence
African heads of state meet in Monrovia to discuss the formation of an African Community
Insurrection by French population in Algeria against de Gaulle's government |
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| 1960 |
September 14 |
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Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is overthrown by Colonel Joseph-Desire Mobutu in the former Belgian Congo |
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| 1961 |
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Patrice Lumumba, Congolese prime minister, is murdered while in detention in Katanga
Angolan independence struggle against Portugal is begun with an attack on a Luanda prison
Chinua Achebe's No Longer at Ease is published
New Congo Federation is declared by President Kasavubu and Prime Minister Ileo
Resistance struggle against Portugal begins under UNITA in northern Angola
Kwame Nkrumah publishes I Speak Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology
South Africa becomes a republic and, under apartheid, withdraws from the Commonwealth of Nations
July Mbari Club is founded in Ibadan by a group of young writers and artists, including WoIe Soyinka, John Pepper Clark, Christopher Okigbo, Demas Nwoko, Uche Okeke, and Ulli Beier. Ezekiel Mphahlele, a South African, is its first president.
Mbari also establishes a publishing house that issues first editions of many of the writers' and dramatists' early works, and exhibits the work of many modern African artists, such as Ibrahim el El-Salahi (Sudan), Malangatana Ngwenya (Mozambique), Skunder Boghossian (Ethiopia), Vincent Kofi (Ghana), Jacob Lawrence (USA), Susanne Wenger (Austria), among many others
Kenyatta is released from prison by British colonial authorities
Tanganyika and Sierra Leone become independent states.
Members of the Commonwealth UN forces attempt, unsuccessfully, to capture the capital of secessionist Katanga
Million-acre scheme instituted in Kenya, whereby the government buys land from settlers and redistributes it to Africans in Kenya
Frantz Fanon's influential The Wretched of the Earth is published, in which he examines the psychological and material costs of colonization in Algeria
Armed forces announce that they have taken control of Algeria; OAS terrorism begins; Algerian peace talks begin in Switzerland
South Africa's Athol Fugard publishes The Blood Knot
Mandela forms and becomes commander-in-chief of Umkhonto we Sizwe-Spear of the Nation-an organization to lead the ANC's armed struggle
Cecil Skotnes, Sidney Kumalo, Giuseppe Cattaneo, and others form the Amadlozi Group in South Africa
Frantz Fanon dies of cancer at the age of thirty-six in Washington, D.C.
Rajat Neogy founds Transition: An International Review in Kampala |
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| 1962 |
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Uganda becomes an independent state and a member of the Commonwealth
Fela Ransome Kuti and a group of West African musicians form the Koola Lobitos in London
Rwanda and Burundi become independent
Kenya Constitutional Conference in London
Christopher Okigbo's Labyrinths is published
Algeria wins independence after eight years of fighting; over 900,000 French settlers leave
First African government is formed in Northern Rhodesia
Frelimo headquarters are set up in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanganyika
Mbari Mbayo Club in Oshogbo, Nigeria, is opened with a performance of dramatist Duro Ladipo's first play, Oba Moro. Many artists, including American painter Jacob Lawrence, Georgina Beier, Dennis Williams, conduct workshops there
First International Congress of African Culture, organized by Frank McEwen, is held in Salisbury, Rhodesia (now Harare, Zimbabwe). It seeks to address the contemporary aesthetics of African art and music. Among the participating artists are Vincent Kofi, Ben Enwonwu, and Malangatana Ngwenya. Alfred Barr, William Fass, SO. Biobaku, Roland Penrose, and Tristan Tzara attend
Art from the Commonwealth is exhibited at the Commonwealth Institute, London
Historic and controversial Conference of African Literature in English language is held at Makerere University, Kampala, to debate the state of post-colonial African literature. Those who attend include Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Ezekiel Mphalele, Lewis Nkosi, James Ngugi, Rajat Neogy. Several nationalist writers fail to acknowledge any literature written in non-African languages as being African |
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| 1963 |
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Ousmane Sembene's first film, Borom Sarret, is released, winning first prize at the International Film Festival in Tours, France
UN troops capture Katanga. Moishe Tshombe goes into exile
Heads of thirty African states sign Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in Addis Ababa, creating the first inter-governmental African organizing body
Jomo Kenyatta becomes prime minister of Kenya after the country gains its independence from Britain
Nigeria and Uganda become republics and members of the Commonwealth
Egypt and Syria merge to become United Arab Republic, a short-lived experiment in pan-Arab unity, with Gamal Abdel Nasser as president Central African Federation of Nyasaland, Southern and Northern Rhodesia is dissolved
Dennis Brutus, prominent South African poet, publishes Sirens Knuckles Boots
Josiah Kariuki publishes the autobiographical work Mau Mau Detainee
Zanzibar becomes independent
Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, Ahmed Kathrada and other prominent liberation leaders are tried for conspiracy and sabotage at the Rivonia trial. All are found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. Mandela addresses court from the dock and refuses to renounce violence as self-defense in the fight against apartheid Conference on the Curriculum of Higher Education held at Fourah Bay College, Freetown. Obi Wall continues to question the state of postcolonial literature and calls for the decolonization of African literature |
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| 1964 |
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Kwame Nkrumah publishes Consciencism: Philosophy and Ideology for Decolonization and Development with Particular Reference to the African Revolution
UN forces leave the Congo
Kenya becomes a republic, with Jomo Kenyatta as its first president
Nyasaland becomes independent as Malawi, with Hastings Banda as prime minister.
Northern Rhodesia becomes independent as Zambia, under Kenneth Kaunda
Frelimo begins armed struggle against the Portuguese in Mozambique
Revolution in Zanzibar; Sultan overthrown and Karume becomes President.
Tanganyika is united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania
Ama Ata Aidoo's The Dilemma of a Ghost is published
The three books in Duro Ladipo's trilogy on the history of the Kingdom of Oyo, Oba Koso (The King did not Hang), Oba Moro (The King of Ghosts), and Oba Waja (The King is Dead), are published to critical acclaim. Ladipo and his theater make a successful appearance at the Berlin Festival with his Yoruba Operas Oba Koso and Eda; the group tours other European cities, including Brussels |
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| 1965 |
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General strike and demonstrations force resignation of President Youlou of the Congo Republic
General Mobutu comes to power in the Congo by ousting President Kasavubu in a second military coup
Organisation Commune Africaine et Malagache (OCAM) is formed at conference of French-speaking heads of state One-party state is adopted in Tanzania
Wole Soyinka's first novel, The Interpreters, is published
Fela Ransome Kuti returns to Nigeria and begins his experiments with a new, postcolonial sound, which he calls Afro beat
Ian Smith declares Unilateral Independence for whites-only Southern Rhodesia to stop the movement toward majority rule
Commonwealth Arts Festival, London, features performances of plays written by Wole Soyinka, Duro Ladipo, and J.P. Clark
Papa bra Tall establishes the Manufacture
Nationale du Tapisserie in Theis, Senegal |
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1966 |
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Nigeria's first military coup d'etat ousts elected civilian government.
Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and Ahmadu BeIIo, the Sardauna of Sokoto, are assassinated, leading to a Nigerian crisis that culminates in civil war
While on a state visit to Romania, President Nkrumah is overthrown by a military coup, bringing an end to the first historic pan-African government in the independence era
New Nigerian constitution replaces federation with unitary state. Twenty-nine die in inter-ethnic conflict between Hausas and lbos in northern Nigeria
Second military coup in Nigeria by northern officers. Head of military government Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi is assassinated and succeeded by Lieutenant Colonel Yakuba Gowon
Gambia, Botswana, and Lesotho gain independence
Commonwealth Conference in Lagos
Shakespeare's Julius Caesar is translated into Swahili by Julius Nyerere, President of Tanzania, during the same period that poet Jean Joseph Rabearivelo begins to use vernacular ballad forms of Madagascar rather than French-inspired forms
First novel by a Nigerian woman is published, Flora Nwapa's Efuru
First Festival Mondial des Arts Negres, is held in Dakar, Senegal, under the patronage of President Senghor
Journees Cinematographiques du Carthage, the first major pan-African film festival, is launched by the Tunisian Ministry of Culture at the urging of Tahar Cheriaa
Glib Pontecorvo's film La Battaglia di Algeri (The Battle of Algiers), which is about the Algerian War of Liberation, is released
African Arts magazine founded by John Povey at the University of California, Los Angeles
Ama Ata Aidoo's Dilemma of the Ghost is published |
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1967 |
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Conference at Aburi, Ghana, fails to prevent secession of Biafra from Nigeria
Biafra, under Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, declares independence from Nigeria.
Tanzania's President Nyerere proclaims the "Arusha Declaration," calling for a policy of self-reliance and the dedication of Dodoma as the new capital of Tanzania
Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda form the East African Community
Six-day war between Egypt and Israel ends in Egyptian defeat, a blow to Nasser's pan-Arabism |
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1967 |
July 6 |
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Federal troops attack . A three-year civil war ensues New Ugandan Constitution abolishes traditional kingdoms. Kabaka of Buganda is restricted to internal exile, creating constitutional crisis |
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1968 |
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President Modibo Keita, first president of independent Mali, is replaced by National Liberation Committee following a coup led by Lieutenant Moussa Traore
James Ngugi (later Ngugi wa Thiong'O), Henry Owuor-Anyumba, and Taban Lo Liongo publish a statement demanding that the English Department at the University of Nairobi be abolished and a Department of African Literature and Languages take its place
Ousmane Sembene's first color feature film, Mandabi (The Money Order), is released
Mauritius and Swaziland gain independence
Leading Nigerian poet Christopher Okigbo is killed in conflict during the civil war in Nigeria
Equitorial Guinea gains independence from Spain |
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1969 |
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The Pan-African Film Festival in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (FESPACO), is inaugurated Charismatic and beloved African nationalist leader of independence and Kenyan Minister for Economic Planning and Development, Tom Mboya, is assassinated in Nairobi
Restoration of civil rule in Ghana; general election establishes Kofi Busia as prime minister
Popular Revolutionary Movement (MNR) is declared sole legal party in the Republic of Congo
Athol Fugard's Boesman and Lena is published
King ldris is deposed by a military coup in Libya; Colonel Gaddafi comes to power
First Festival Cultural Panafricain is held in Algiers President Gamal Abdel Nasser resigns from office, relinquishes all official political titles and functions, and withdraws from public life. He is succeeded by Anwar Sadat
The Ghanaian government of President Busia expels Nigerian residents; tens of thousands are displaced |
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End of civil war in Nigeria, which claimed more than one and half million lives.
The surrender of Biafra
President Obote's "Common Man's Charter" is introduced in Uganda
President Nasser dies in Cairo; thousands attend his funeral
President Mobutu begins "Authenticite" campaign, changes his name from Joseph-Desire to Mobutu Sese-Seko, renames the Congo Zaire, and orders the removal from public view of all symbols of colonial rule, including the bronze monument of Belgian King Leopold II in the center of Kinshasa
Federation Panafricaine des Cineastes (FEPACI) is formed in Algiers
Burkina Faso nationalizes film distribution and production, creating SONAVICI
Declaration of Mogadishu issued by eastern and central African states announcing their intention to continue armed struggle to liberate South Africa |
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1971 |
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Idi Amin deposes President Milton Obote of Uganda, in a military coup, beginning one of the most repressive regimes in Africa
Central African Republic recognizes South Africa; receives economic aid
Declaration of Mogadishu issued by eastern and central African states announcing their intention to continue armed struggle to liberate South Africa.
African National Council formed in Rhodesia by Bishop Abel Muzorewa |
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1972 |
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Kwame Nkrumah dies in exile in Guinea
WoIe Soyinka publishes The Man Died, his prison memoirs
Hutu guerrillas in Burundi kill over 10000 Tutsis in an attempted coup
Tanzania and Uganda sign peace treaty
Safi Faye makes her first, short film, The Passerby, as the first black African woman to direct a feature film
Chad and Nigeria sign treaty of cooperation and mutual assistance
Asians expelled from Uganda by General Amin
Pearce Commission in Rhodesia reports that the African population says "no" to settlement proposals |
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1973 |
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Mali and Nigeria sign treaty of cooperation and mutual assistance
Zambia-Rhodesia border closed by President Kaunda
Massive strikes by black mine workers in South Africa
First All-African Games held in Lagos
Djibril Diop Mambety's seminal film Touki Bouki is released in Senegal
Youssef Chahine's Sparrow is released
Ethiopian director Haile Gerima's Harvest 3000 is released
Prime Minister Ian Smith of Rhodesia begins talks with African nationalists in an attempt to reach an internal settlement |
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1974 |
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Emperor Haile Selassie is overthrown by a military coup ending the rule of the world's longest royal dynasty
Sixth Pan-African Congress held in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, with representatives from various liberation movements, including the ANC, South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), and Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) |
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1975 |
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Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, and Angola gain independence from Portugal
General Yakuba Gowon is overthrown in Nigeria's third, bloodless military coup, to be replaced by Brigadier Murtala Ramat Muhammed
Dahomey is renamed People's Republic of Benin
Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia dies in detention; his body is secretly buried by a military junta
Lome Agreement signed between the EEC and thirty-seven African states
Great year for African cinema: Ousmane Sembene releases his influential film Xala; Lakhdar Hamina's film Chronique des années de braise is awarded the Palme d'or at the Cannes Film Festival
Economic Community of West African States is founded; Treaty signed by fifteen states
Tanzam Railway is opened between Zambia and Tanzania
Four "front-line" presidents at Quilemane pledge support for the Zimbabwe National Liberation Army South African troops invade Angola in support of UNITA forces |
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| 1976 |
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Nigerian head of state, General Murtala Muhammed, is assassinated in unsuccessful coup d'etat and succeeded by Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo
Israeli Commandos raid Entebbe Airport in Kampala and successfully rescue Israeli hostages held by Palestinian Liberation Organization guerrillas
Angola, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia sign an agreement on regional defense cooperation
Soweto uprising begins in South Africa; Hector Peterson, aged eleven, becomes first student killed
South Africa declares Transkei, one of the Bantustans created by the apartheid regime to enforce further black segregation from the white population, independent
Safi Faye directs her first full-length feature film, A Letter from My Village
Institut Africain d'education cinematographique (INAFEC) is set up in Burkina Faso to train filmmakers |
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| 1977 |
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Steve Biko, founder and leader of Black Consciousness Movement, dies in police custody
UN imposes embargo on arms trade with South Africa
Djibouti becomes independent state; final withdrawal of the French from African territory
Central African Empire proclaimed by Jean Bedel Bokassa, who crowns himself emperor
Assembly meets in Nigeria in preparation for return to civilian government
Second World Black Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC), the largest cultural event ever on the African continent, is held in Lagos, with over 17,000 participants from over fifty countries |
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| 1978 |
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South African Black Consciousness Movement's Azanian People's Organization (AZAPO) is formed
South African forces attack South West African People's Organization refugee camp in Angola
Jomo Kenyatta, statesman, nationalist, independence and anti-colonial leader, pan-Africanist, and Kenya's first president, dies in Mombasa
Transitional government under Bishop Abel Muzorewa is formed in Rhodesia
Anwar Sadat of Egypt signs the historic Camp David Peace Treaty in Washington, D.C., with Israel's Menachem Begin, and becomes first Arab leader to visit Jerusalem
Malian film director Souleyman Cisse makes Baara
lvorian sculptor Christian Lattier dies in Abidjan |
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| 1979 |
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Tanzanian and Ugandan exiles, as part of Ugandan Liberation Front, invade Uganda to overthrow Idi Amin, who flees from the country after the fall of Kampala
Ethiopia and Kenya sign cooperation treaty
Souleyman Cisse is arrested by the Malian government for making the film Den Moussa Civilian rule is restored in Ghana after Flight-Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings attempts, for several months, to seize power in his first attempted military coup
Elections and return of civilian rule in Nigeria and the inauguration of second republic
Emperor Bokassa is overthrown and Central African Republic is established Consortium lnter-Africain de Distribution Cinematographique (CIDC) is formed to create a common market for cinema in Francophone Africa |
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| 1980 |
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Ceasefire in Rhodesia ends civil war; Robert Mugabe's ZANU wins fifty-seven of eighty contested seats in the Rhodesian election. Rhodesia gains independence from Britain, becoming Zimbabwe Reggae star Bob Marley performs at the independence inauguration of Zimbabwe
President Senghor of Senegal resigns from office. Vice President Abdou Diouf succeeds him
Federated Union of Black Artists (FUBA) Academy is founded in Johannesburg |
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| 1981 |
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Kenya and Somalia sign cooperation and border agreement
Jerry Rawlings seizes power in Ghana, in his second military coup, remaining president of the country until 2000
OAU demands the withdrawal of Libyan troops from Chad
President Kaunda of Zambia meets South African Prime Minister P.W. Botha on the border of Botswana and South Africa
Kenya officially becomes a one-party state
Libyan jets are shot down by United States aircraft
South African troops advance into southern Angola to fight against SWAPO guerrillas
President Anwar Sadat of Egypt is assassinated in Cairo by an Islamic fundamentalist |
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| 1982 |
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FEPACI meets in Niamey (Niger) and issues the Niamey Manifesto
Split in South Africa's National Party occurs following opposition to Prime Minister P.W. Botha's proposals for constitutional change
South Africa raids ANC bases in Mozambique |
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| 1983 |
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Souleyman Cisses Finye wins the Grand Prix at FESPACO in Ouagadougou
Centre International des Civilisations Bantu (CICIBA) is established in Libreville, Gabon South African antiapartheid organization United Democratic Front is launched in Cape Town
Nigerian civilian government of President Shehu Shagari is overthrown in fourth coup led by Major-General Muhammadu Buhari
New Constitutional Bill in South Africa
Captain Sankara seizes power in Upper Volta to initiate radical reforms in the country, which is renamed Burkina Faso
Discussions begin over the future of Namibia between South Africa and the United Nations |
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| 1984 |
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Mozambique and South Africa sign Nkomati Accord, a mutual non-aggression pact
President Sekou Touré, Guinea, dies. Military Committee for National Recovery, under the leadership of Colonel Lansan Contb and Colonel Diarra
Traore, seizes power
Benin, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo sign cooperation agreement
First Cairo International Biennale
P.W. Botha becomes President of South Africa
Archbishop Desmond Tutu is awarded Nobel Peace Prize
Lome III Treaty is signed to order trade relations between European Community and African States
"A Hundred Years after the Berlin Conference:
Perspectives on Africa's Liberation" is held at Makerere University |
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| 1985 |
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State of emergency is declared by South Africa's apartheid government. The Congress of Trade Unions (COSATU) is launched in response.
South African troops withdraw from Angola
Transitional government is set up in Namibia
President Nyerere resigns from office in Tanzania
The government of Israel conducts an airlift of Ethiopian Falasha Jews to Israel
First Biennale of Contemporary Bantu Art, Libreville, Gabon
A seminal exhibition opens in Johannesburg, "Tributaries: A View of Contemporary South African Art," curated by Ricky Burnett, which brings together for the first time the work of both mainstream and rural African artists
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| 1985 |
December 25 |
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Six-day war between Mali and Algeria over disputed Agacher strip |
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| 1985-87 |
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Ousmane Sembene (Senegal), Souleyman Cisse (Mali), and other African filmmakers found the West African Film Corporation (WAFCO) as an inter-African film body instrumental in cultural advancement and preservation
First People's Parks created in Soweto, South Africa |
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| 1986 |
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Military leader General Babangida announ | | |
